Compare and Contrast Suffering Shown in Six Poems Essay

The first thing you think when you are told the word suffering is torturing and death and yes this is a big aspect of the topic and it is included in the poem mother in a refugee camp by Chinua Achebe but there is also other parts of it that is not just physical but involves mental suffering and it is this section that is rarely associated with the word in question, Hide and seek by Vernon Scannell is a good example of how this piece comes into play. From this evidence we can explore different forms of suffering and by the time I have reached my conclusion we will have a better understanding of the term. To help us get a better perspective of the word I have used three main poems that demonstrate different elements of suffering War photographer is a poem by carol ann Duffy and he is looking through the pictures he has taken and looking back on their deaths he also talks about how the public react and their lack of care and understanding and what individual has gone through to get just one picture. You can also look at the poem Dulce ET decorum EST which is similar in that it involves the public, Wilfred Owen was a writer from world war one and he disliked how war was displayed to the public that everyone was a hero and they always won. So Owen met some friends and they wrote poems about what the war was really like and this is where he wrote this poem and in it uses the phrase â€Å"the old lie Dulce et Decorum Est Propatria Mori†, In war photographer instead of showing the public the reality of war through poetry he has done it through vivid images that really hit the public and show them what war is really like and although they are separated by almost a 100 years you can see how they are connected. From the start of war photographer you get the feeling of quietness and solitude and if you had to link this with a colour it is quite possible that most people will say something along the lines of blue or green but Carol Ann Duffy has used the colour red and somehow connected it to quietness the colour red is mentioned as it was the colour used when developing a photograph so the room had to be pitch black with the faint red glow. Another example that gives the poem the feeling of tranquillity is the line that uses a religious example. A priest preparing to intone a mass† this technique has also been used in ‘War photographer.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"No Madonna and child could touch†, this is referring to Mary and her son Jesus in the bible and is used as a sign of peace and love which is how the mother in this poem feels towards her dying child. The religious mention in ‘war photographer also represents peace but in this is example it is more to do with the quietness as the photos are developed. he phrase used in the second line is used to represent the people in front of the firing squad waiting to be shot â€Å"spools of suffering set out in ordered rows† and he has used the word suffering in this line as you can imagine the pain of knowing you are about to die and yet you are hopeless in terms of the outcome there is another example where hopelessness is mentioned and this is in ‘Dulce et decorum est’ when there is an â€Å"Ecstasy of fumbling† as everyone tries to put there gas mask on and the one guy who is a bit slow who runs out of time, this guy was helpless to what was going to happen to him is exactly like the men standing up against the firing squad as they are both powerless On the next line Duffy uses four lines to start of the poem and yet there are four full stops, this is to e mphasise on each of the areas mentioned that he has been to and taken pictures of war and it makes the reader pause and think about each individual word, â€Å"Belfast. Beirut. Phnom Penh†. The last line of the Stanza is taken from the bible â€Å"all flesh is grass† there is dying and suffering everywhere.  As you read onto the next stanza Duffy talks about the war photographer going home to Rural England he has used caesura here again and it has been used to make â€Å"Rural England† sound really blunt and plain and she says â€Å"to fields that don’t explode beneath the feet of running children in a nightmare heat† this makes you think how much suffering there would be in the world if it was all like these places Beirut and Phnom Penh and the planet was a war zone. On the last stanza Duffy talks about a hundred agonies in black and white and it is said that black and white photographs are the most powerful and effective forms of capturing the moment of suffering. This poem has a very effective ending and it is going back to what I said at the start â€Å"From the aeroplane he stares impassively at where he earns his living and they do not care† and she is talking about the public and what they have all gone through to get these photographs all for maybe five or six that will be picked out to be published and used in tomorrows newspaper and yet when they read it as he says they do not care. This is not the only poem that has a really effective ending many of the poems have a really strong ending to put there point across, and to make the reader feel emotion towards the victim of suffering. Seamus Heaney’s Mid term break has left a line all by itself to serve as the ending, Mid term Break is about an older brother who has come back to school to find that his younger brother has been hit by a car and it is about how the older brother reacts to this experience, this piece of poetry is autobiographical so it makes the storyline even more moving. A four foot box a foot for every year† this line puts the poem in to perspective when you think just how small this child is and helpless he was, this comes back to the point made in ‘War Photographer’ and ‘Dulce et Decorum Est’ and you can see this part plays a big role as it very important and is one of the most frequent forms of suffering. Vernon Scannell has used a sense of mystery just like war photographer it doesn’t mention any names but it says â€Å"but where are they who sought you? You do not know who the people were same as in war photographer . Hide and seek is all about playing a typical childhood game that everyone knows about and it is through the eyes of a small child and how quickly excitement can turn to a type of suffering. This means of seeing the world through the eyes of a child can be very effective in portraying loneliness and this is exactly what this poet is trying to exploit in using a younger victim. Throughout the start of the poem the writer has expressed the boys excitement using various methods the first technique Scannell has used is the rhyming couplets every forth and fifth line to show just how eager he is to play the game and to win and outsmart his friends also the writer has used caesura, this has been used when there is a change in tension â€Å"Don’t breathe. Don’t move. Stay dumb. Hide in your blindness. † This has been used when the seekers are just at the door to the shed and there is a sudden tense moment when he realises that he must stay quiet to not be caught. Then unexpectedly there is a time jump and we now have this change in atmosphere as the boy is suddenly at a discomfort â€Å"the dark damp smell of sand moves in your throat† also Scannell helps us feel empathy towards the boy as even the weather seems to be against him â€Å"the cold bites through your coat† whereas you had the feeling of warmth at the start where he talks about a beach which is not associated with the cold. Then you get the feeling of excitement again suddenly as he reveals himself only to be brought back down again as he finds out that there is no-one there and everyone has gone and this is where you get the feeling of loneliness which is directly related to suffering and is used in other poems such as half past two by U. A. Thanthorpe. Half past two is about a seemingly sweet and innocent boy who is almost in a dream state throughout the poem and is about him â€Å"escaping into the clockless land†. U. A. Thanthorpe has also used the technique of seeing the world through the mind of a child to portray loneliness just as Scannell has done in his poem. There comes no worse than a death of a child especially your own, you may say this poem demonstrates death more intensely than war photographer or Wilfred Owens poem this is similar to Mid term break where Seamus Heaney talks about the death of a younger brother and they are similar in that a child is used to amplify the sympathy from the reader. Although Heanny’s poem is autobiographical you can say that mother in a refugee camp displays a more depressing feeling as the little child is not the only one suffering as everyone in the refugee camp is almost suffering equally and some of the mothers have even given up on their Childs and the one person you usually look to for comfort is your mother and to not have that support is a disheartening thought. And this really creates an empathy link between the reader and this mother and the victims of this dreadful area in which the whole place is enclosed by death. Achebe uses techniques just as the other poets have, to express torturing in the poem. The main thing he has used is vivid imagery which is a excellent method of really painting a picture in the readers mind about what it would have been like, â€Å"Behind blown empty bellies† he has also used alliteration so once you understand this picture that he is portraying it also sticks in your mind so that you don’t forget it. Then you really start to feel the mothers love for her child near the end as she uses the phrase ‘humming in her eyes’ which suggest she is close to tears and this is a really emotional part of the story and then Achebe really ends the story effectively â€Å"like putting flowers on a tiny grave† this means that even though she knows her son is going to pass away she still feels the love for him that any mother will always do. And this phrase really helps you sympathise with the mother and Ac hebe has helped us understand how she is really feeling and the suffering that she feels inside. So as you can see these six different poets have expressed their feelings on suffering in lots different ways in their poems. Suffering can come in many forms. The ones used in this poem are just a few of the many aspects of suffering. It can come in the form of death and war which was what was used in most of the poems and you can say this is the most extreme form but as I have proved suffering can also come in the form of loneliness and helplessness which is not what you would first expect when you think of suffering, but when you look into it more closely you get a greater understanding of the word and how it can be expressed differently for different situations.

Representing Dreams and Hopes: Cinderella and the Disney Fantasy

The abstract sums up your paper’s purpose and content in 120 words or less. It includes important information such as the thesis and main ideas. Abbreviations and unique terms should also be defined. It should be in your own words and as brief as possible. >> Representing Dreams and Hopes: Cinderella and the Disney Fantasy Animation is a succession of images, sounds, and emotions in which Walt Disney has presented his miracle ideas by a number of animated cartoons and artworks for over 75 years.Apart from being products of science and technology, Disney’s animated features also have an entertainment value, which promise elements of hope, joy, and sorrow. In the video,Once Upon a Dream the Making of Sleeping Beauty, Walt Disney says: It is always a challenge for bringing a great story classic to the screen and giving visual form to the characters and the places that only existed in the imagination. But it is the kind of challenge that we enjoy. Disney’s programs t ake their audiences out of the world of reality to give a peek into the most fantastic world of fantasy, touching and encouraging audiences at the same time.In animated film history, the most popular example being Cinderella created in 1950. Since the early 19th century, its songs and narrative are a legend of the history of animation.. Cinderella (1950) is an incredible, classical masterpiece of animation history, a tribute to the Disney tradition of the animation production. It has successfully influenced cartoon culture and audiences over the years. Cinderella (1950) is an incredible, amazing, famous and classical American animated feature produced by Walt Disney and his studio. Since Mickey, Donald Duck, and Snow White Disney studios have dominated the American animation industry.Post World War II, this studio was in great financial difficulty. John Culhance, an author and film historian, mentions debts of USD $4 million after the WWII period. Ohmer, in That Rags to Riches Stuff : Disney’s Cinderella and the Cultural Space of Animation, presents that during the story conferences of Cinderella in May 1947, Walter Lantz, president of the Cartoon Producers Association, announced that animated film production would be cut more than 45% during the following year. Disney faced a number of obstacles, both external and internal and ranging from economic to sociological.Under these circumstances, producing a full-length feature seemed difficult given the time required to produce an animation film, which is usually about three to four years. Although it took risks of producing Cinderella, Walt Disney was persistent in fighting for his dream. It motivated him to make a full-length and full-colored animation movie despite his studio being in financial difficulty. In Cinderella, with a running time of 72 minutes, Disney used USD $2. 9 million for creating an attractive and dramatic content. Cinderella is based on the fairy tale â€Å"Cendrillon† by Charles Perrault.Right from her sparkling ball gown and glass slippers to the Fairy Godmother, the mice, and Cinderella herself are etched in people’s minds. Apart from Perrault’s version, Disney added some extra details to the screen version. For example, when the two ugly sisters damage Cinderella’s ball gown, she looks kinder and lovelier. It successfully brings out the individual trait of each character. This 1950 classic fairytale helped Disney and his team save the entire cartoon business and helped create a legend. The film was a huge success at the box office, which allowed Disney to carry on the animation empire.Cinderella has re-released at least six times in different generations. From the format of VHS video to the latest platinum DVD edition, it helps Walt Disney earn huge success and also make millions and millions of profits. Although there were limitations while producing Cinderella (1950), Disney used two critical strategies to save money and control t he cost of production. These strategies defined the work process for creating animation feature films. To begin with, they hired outside consultants to conduct the market research. The research of product manufacturing was established through advertising and production conference.Disney also used a previews section to understand audiences’ reactions. This helped to focus on audiences’ likes and dislikes. They wanted to make sure that everyone would love to see Cinderella. Joel Siegel, a film critic, also praised Cinderella stating that the story presented the faith of â€Å"American Dreams† and â€Å"Hollywood Dreams†. To illustrate, Cinderella imagines herself as the girl, who is chosen by the Prince and dresses up beautifully. People were attracted to this story, primarily because it transformed people’s dreams onto the screen.Disney and his team transformed the dream into motion picture on the screen. This is also the major reason why this story is still fresh in the audiences’ minds and still very popular amongst generations for 60 years now. The second strategy that Walt and his animators used was a live action model for reference to shorten the development processes of Cinderella. Helene Stanley was the action model used, while Ilene Woods was the voice artiste. Both contributed greatly in creating this motion feature film. The live action models helped Disney transform the magical moments of the scene into meticulous details.The animators paid careful attention to human movements; so that they could make the characters alive on screen. Before the final artworks were made, live action footage was used to create the plots, time the sequences of action, track both facial and physical movements of the characters, and test their cohesiveness. Actors and actress wore full consumes with makeup, in which they acted out of the screen on stage with background setting. Cinderella provided a link between Disney’s pre sent and its past, and shaped the legacy of animation production.After using live actors for motion reference to produce Snow White and the Seven Dwarf (1937) and the hugely successful Cinderella (1950); Disney truly thought that using live action model reference could allow the animators’ ability to improve the picture to be more realistic. They could take photos frame by frame such that some key poses could be pulled out directly as a basis for drawing the flipbooks. Shooting the film in live action also minimized the changes in the drawings and helped speed up production. The production of Cinderella thus proved how important and valuable it was to use live action models for reference.Since then, 90% of the hand drawn animations were created based on live action models. This production strategy is still being used for more recent animation films, such as The Little Mermaid (1989) and Hercules (1997). The Little Mermaid (Platinum Edition) The Making: Live Action Reference ( Clip), shows that Broadway actress Jodi Benson was chosen to play the voice of Ariel; while Sheri Lynn Stoner, a former member of Los Angeles’ Groundings improvisation comedy group, was chosen to be the live action reference model of Ariel.Glen Keane, the co-supervising animator of Ariel, indicated that he understood the importance of studying frame by frame of footage in drawings. Since the animators wanted to balance the coherence of the sound and motion, live action models did help create detailed and realistic drawings. The Making of Hercules, 1997 video showcases Disney’s traditional production strategy, even though modern animation uses a combination of technology and art works. The production of Hercules (1997) combines traditional animation techniques with the latest computer-generated imagery CGI to add graphics and 3D effects into the film.Roger Gould, the CGI supervisor, mentioned that the computer could only help in creating more than what they could do bef ore. However, all the preparation and production processes still remain very traditional. Once the story structure is completed and presented using a storyboard, voice artistes record voices of the characters by adding other details to the animation. Nik Ranieri indicated that he wanted the voices and the animations to be combined nicely; therefore, the voice artistes’ performances were very important to create detail body movements and facial expressions of the character.Andreas Deja, the supervising animator of Hercules, combined Tate Donovan’s energy and naive quality into the characteristics of Hercules. Besides, different voice actors also acted out with body movements and facial expressions. For example, Danny DeVito (the voice artiste of the Philoctetes), changes his facial expressions while talking in different tones. The animator videotaped Vito’s recording process and used these expressions while animating Philoctetes. James Woods (the voice artiste of Hades), used his body movement and sneer as the basis for Hades’ gestures.These elements are very powerful and increase the ability of storytelling. By comparing the production processes of Cinderella (1950), The Little Mermaid (1989), and Hercules (1997) Disney and his team strived to animate magical moments into realistic motion pictures. They created many unforgettable scenes, such as Cinderella imagining herself as the girl chosen by the Prince and dressing up beautifully; the Little Mermaid becoming human to look for her true love and dreams; and Hercules sacrificing himself to save his lover and finally becoming a real hero.There is no doubt the huge success of Cinderella (1950) created a defined the production legacy by building up a traditional system for creating animation feature films. Disney and his studio not only aim on creating entertainment, but also present the meaningful thesis of â€Å"Dreams can come true if you have the courage to pursuit them. † By comparing the latest princess story of Cinderella (1950) and The Princess and The Frog (2009), we can certainly pinpoint that Cinderella influences the cartoon culture of Disney stories.Typically, Disney stories present royal romance including love, faith, and dreams. Moreover, they highlight the importance of the Fairy Godmother, the narrative power of the songs, and animal helpers. Cinderella (1950) is really a successful story, which can attract everyone in different generation, because all people have the imagination and dreams. Most girls can identify with the Cinderella story and would like to be pretty like her and be chosen by their Prince who will help them put on the glass slippers.Many boys also want to find their true love just like the Prince found Cinderella. The lyrics of â€Å"A Dream is A Wish Your Heart Makes,† encourages people in different generations. â€Å"No matter how you heart is grieving, if you keep on believing, the dream that you wish will com e true. † Cinderella is transformation by Fairy Godmother with the beautiful ball gown, is one of the scenes liked by Disney the most. Thus, Cinderella not only explores the audiences’ imagination, but also makes everyone’s dreams come live on the screen.

Html Studyguide

The general syntax of a CSS style rule is selector { property1: value1; property2: value2; property3: value3; } Order in which style sheets are interpreted. The more specific style is applied instead of the more general. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Browser’s internal style sheet User-defined style sheet Author’s external style sheet Author’s embedded style sheet Author’s inline style sheet User-Defined Styles Almost all browsers allow users to modify the default settings of the internal style sheet. External Style SheetsTo link to an external style sheet use the following text directly above the closing head text tag: Embedded Style Sheets Styles are inserted directly within the head element of an HTML document using the style element: styles Or h1 {Color: red; Text-align: center;} The order in which external and embedded style sheets are processed depends on the order in which they are listed within the HTML file. In the below example the loads the external style sheet first and then the embedded SS. If the order were switched the imported SS gets processed after the embedded one. h1 {Color: red; Text-align: center;} Inline Styles Applied directly to specific elements using the style attribute: †¦ Importing Style Sheets To import a style sheet to a master style sheet use the @import statement BEFORE any other style rules: @import url(url); or for example @import url(sa_styles. css); Exploring the Style Cascade As a general rule of thumb, all other things being equal, the more specific style is applied instead of the more general . An additional factor in applying a style sheet is that properties are passed from a parent element to its children in a process known as style inheritance. body {color: blue;} h1 {text-align: center;} If you need browsers to enforce a style, you can append the ! important keyword to the style property, using the syntax: property: value ! mportant; Defining Color in CSS A color value is a numerical expression that describes the properties of a color CSS represents these intensities mathematically as a set of numbers called an RGB triplet, which has the format color: rgb(red, green, blue); color:#redgreenblue ; background-color: color; color: color; or or or or color: rgb(255,255,0); color:#FFFF00; background-color: rgb(255,255,0); or color:#FFFF00; or color:white; CSS also allows RGB values to be entered as hexadecimal numbers To set th e background color of an element, use the below property where color is a color name or a color value. To set the foreground or text color of an element, use the following property: color: rgb(255,255,0); or or CSS3 also supports the Hue Saturation Lightness (HSL) model that describes colors based on hue, saturation, and lightness hsl(hue, saturation, lightness) rgba(red, green, blue, opacity) hsl(360, 100%, 100%) rgba(255, 255, 255, 0. 8) hsla(360, 100%, 100%, 0. 2) CSS3 also allows page designers to augment RGB and HSL color with opacity where 0 = completely transparent and 1 = completely opaque. hsla(hue, saturation, lightness, opacity) or Selectors and Text Styles Web pages are structured documents in which elements are nested within other elements, forming a hierarchy of elements. To create styles that take advantage of this tree structure, CSS allows you to create contextual selectors whose values represent the locations of elements within the hierarchy: 1) 2) 3) 4) Parent elements Child elements Sibling elements Descendant elements Contextual Selectors Attribute Selectors Selectors also can be defined based on attributes and attribute values associated with elements. Two attributes, id and class, are often key in targeting styles to a specific element or group of elements. Styling Web Page Text The default font used by most browsers is Times New Roman, but you can specify a different font for any page element using the property: font-family: fonts; or font-family: ‘Arial Black’, gadget, sans-serif; Setting Font Face and Sizes: Sizes can be relative or absolute. To define a font face, use the style property: font-family: fonts; font-size: size; letter-spacing: size; word-spacing: size; To specify the font style, use the below style where type is normal, italic, or oblique. ont-style: type; To specify the font weight, use the below format where type is normal, bold, bolder, light, lighter, or a font weight value. font-weight: type; To specify a text decoration, use the below format where type is none, underline, overline, or line-through. text-decoration: type; To transform text, use the below code where type is capitalize, uppercase, lowercase, or none. text-transform: type; To display a font variant of text, use the below format where type is normal or small-caps. ont-variant: type; You can combine most of the text and font styles into a single property using the shortcut font property font: font-style font-variant font-weight font-size/line-height font-family; Combining Text Format in a single style or or or font-family: ‘Arial Black’, gadget, sans-serif; font-size: 0. 5in; or font-size: 36pt; font-size: 0. 5in; or font-size: 3pc; or font-size: 1. 7em; To set a font size, use the below style property where size is a CSS unit of length in either relative or absolute units. To set kerning (the space between letters), use the following style property: To set tracking (the space between words), use the following style property: Designing a List To define the appearance of the list marker, use the style below where type is disc, circle, square, decimal, decimal-leading-zero, lower-roman, upper-roman, lower-alpha, upper-alpha, lower-greek, upper-greek, or none. list-style-type: type; To insert a graphic image as a list marker, use the style below where url is the URL of the graphic image file. ist-style-image: url(url); To set the position of list markers, use the style below where position is inside or outside. list-style-position: position; To define all of the list style properties in a single style, use the following style: list-style: type url(url) position; To set the indentation of a list, apply the style below where size is the length that the list should be indented. padding-left: size; Using Pseudo-Classes and Pseudo-Elements A pseudo-class is a c lassification of an element based on its current status, position, or use in the document selector:pseudo-class {styles;} Structural Psuedo Classes

A restaurant Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

A restaurant - Essay Example The first point of interest to me in that situation would immediately be the safety of myself and of my friends; with the safety of other restaurant patrons being included in this overall level of concern as well. Secondly, I would most likely get down and instruct all of those around me to get on the ground and maintain a low profile; i.e. in other words not allow the shooter to have any type of discernable target to focus his fire upon. The second thing that I would do is try to organize a fast exit for my friends and the other people within the restaurant. Although it is helpful to get down low and try to present the shooter with a small of a target as possible, an even more important factor will be to evacuate the place as soon as humanly possible. Due to the fact that it is unknown what the shooter ultimately intends on doing combined with the fact that sitting around and waiting for the worst is foolish. The third item that I would attempt would be dependent upon the situation and overall proximity that I had to the shooter in the case in point. If I was in a situation in which I could throw something, distract, or otherwise incapacitate the shooter I would do so as both a means to protect myself and as a means to seek to provide a necessary element of distraction to allow others the opportunity to escape. Fourthly, I would seek to find help as soon as possible by contacting the authorities. This fourth point has waited until later in this analysis due to the fact that time is of the essence with regards to seeking to rapidly evacuate the premises and ensure that the other steps which have herein been detailed are adequately followed prior to taking the time to open the phone, dial the authorities, and explain the situation as it is unfolding. Although the level of discussion that has been described is speculative, there is truly no way to describe to anyone how I would ultimately a ct in a situation such as the one described; regardless of the

The Necklace Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

The Necklace - Essay Example In the story, great contrast between rich and poor can be visualized where he used main character like Mathilde who dreams of living a lavish life in spite of his mediocre situation. She has an ambition of becoming rich in glamorous clothes and jewelries and appreciated by men; but she married a low paid clerk and cannot afford her fantasies. These features of the fiction are similar to present day reality where poor people are sometimes not contented to what they can afford. They are more concerns on looking rich than attaining wealth from hardworking. Thus, the story also describes not only the surroundings of Maupassant, the author, but it also reflects realities of poor societies today. The better part of the story shows poverty can transform a person in a hard way. Like what Mathilde experienced, poverty has forced her to become stronger, to face responsibility, and to work harder. At first, she is very dependent and spoiled to her husband but her husband cannot afford all the c aprices she desires. Given the chance to taste the life she dreams. Mathilde demands indisputably nice dress and fabulous jewel to attend a party. Her husband gives his savings to buy dress, though it’s intended for buying a rifle, and Mathilde also borrows a diamond necklace from her rich friend. But, the night Mathilde fulfilled her dream turns her worst nightmare – Mathilde lost the necklace.

FS2003C Investment Analysis assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

FS2003C Investment Analysis assignment - Essay Example The conclusion will be description and reasons for the company chosen to invest. In this paper I have chosen Prudential and BHP Billiton as two multinationals from FTSE 100 firms. I have chosen these companies because they are very reputable in their industries and I want to use investment analysis to compare and to make an investment decision based on this analysis. Prudential is an international financial services group providing retail financial products and services including insurance, fund management and banking products. The company primarily operates in the UK. It is headquartered in London, the UK. Prudential is a holding company. Through its subsidiaries, Co. is engaged in the provision of financial services in the U.K., the U.S. and Asia. Co. operates through five brand names: Prudential, M&G, Egg plc, Jackson National Life and Prudential Corporation Asia. Prudential is a life and pensions providers provider in the United Kingdom. The group recorded revenues of  £41,125 million during the fiscal year ended December 2005, an increase of 21.3% over 2004. The net profit was  £760 million in fiscal year 2005, an increase of 47.3% over 2004. (Prudential, 2006) BHP Billiton is the worlds largest resources group primarily engaged in mineral exploration and production. The groups primary focus areas include carbon steel raw materials, energy coal, nickel, copper concentrate, petroleum and diamonds. It operates globally with more than 100 operating bases in 25 countries. BHP Billiton is a dual listed company comprising BHP Billiton Limited and BHP Billiton Plc. The two entities continue to exist as separate companies, but operate as a combined group known as BHP Billiton. (Billiton, 2006) The global headquarters of the combined BHP Billiton Group are located in Melbourne, Australia. The group employs about 37,000 people. (Billiton, 2006) The group recorded revenues of $32,153 million during the fiscal year ended June 2006, an increase of

Research paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 3

Research paper - Essay Example The adoption of the term was in the 20th century and has had a vast application in recognition of human beings that do not fall in the two broad human categories: males and females. In the western society, the field of intersex is very clear in educating people on the various disorders that human beings bear and the efforts that scientists have made in the comprehension of the conditions. Going through the various opinions that scientists, professionals and the general population have regarding the issue is an important step paving way for in depth understanding of the situation. Introduction Many writers in the continent have also made tremendous strides forward in a bid to educate people on the various conditions involved in the field of intersex. Another aspect of the field that has close ties with the main subject is intersex surgery. This is the kind of surgery performed on people with intersex disorder in a bid to accomplish varying purposes. The two main reasons that the surge ry is performed are to either save the life of the person or to address social issues that the person may be facing (Sytsma 106). However, many scientists warn about the issue of genital surgery as research shows that the results got from the surgery are far worse than good on not only the areas under surgery but also the entire body system of the person. Katrina Roen's Views Katrina Roen is a very famous writer who has written many books and articles concerning the area of intersex. She is the writer of one critically analyzed and reviewed article called â€Å"But We Have to Do Something.† The article has had major reviews from the manner in which Katrina focuses on the issues portrayed by various writers in the field of intersex and intersex surgery. She majorly focuses on the issue of cosmetic surgery in the western society in relation to infants atypically sexed. In her publication, she criticizes the rest of the publications stating that the manner in which they feature the female and human body as a whole is not only demining but also bothering the rest of the population. In the 21st century, many changes have been made in the surgical processes carried out, and this has had great benefits to many people. However, Katrina states that these changes should not be a reason for people to always opt for surgery and especially when dealing with young people and infants. Katrina states that the young and infants are rather vulnerable at their ages and getting them through surgery is a rather traumatic process. She goes ahead to state that parents should take responsibility for their actions as anything may happen in the surgical rooms having authorized the procedures. It is not right for children and infants to go through the strenuous surgical processes as they may have a negative impact on their development, and the outcome is never certain (Roen 42). Katrina also states that taking them through the procedures is rather poor as the kids had no approval of undergoing the procedure. She then advises that parents halt such procedures and just wait for their kids to grow up and make their own decisions as to whether they should undergo the surgery or continue living in their conditions. Another factor that she takes into consideration while going around her discussion is about the work published by feminists and their regard to intersex

Australian Women Workforce Participation and Childcare from 5 to 12 Research Paper

Australian Women Workforce Participation and Childcare from 5 to 12 - Research Paper Example In this case; the research question will be; what is it to be a woman with childcare responsibilities while working in the social market? Presently, there is no appropriate literature that can improve our understanding of the experiences of women with both family and childcare responsibilities. It is because the knowledge on the experience presently is from the minor evidence of unguided past research and other prevailing practices. Thus, the inquiry process starts with the knowledge gap presented by the prior misguided research on the issue at hand. Women point of view may be that they provide quality services to the social work despite pressure from the childcare responsibilities. Hence, following that there is no evidence to support this view, an original research might contrast their opinion. Therefore, this methodology focuses on idiographic. Its objective is to provide insight into how women in the social works make sense in the phenomenon or if they effectively contribute to a ccomplishing their responsibilities. The methodology is appropriate because it relates to the experiences of some individual’s significance like life events or an important relationship development (Hays & Singh, 2012). Interpretive phenomenology is significant in the fact that it helps in understanding the people’s lived experiences and establishes the everyday phenomena’s meanings in their lives, ideas and thoughts. Observations or interviews can generate a rich description of the individual’s lived experiences and providing a substantive data in identifying the key metaphors and main themes of the events and the phenomena in question.

Models of Institutional Control Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Models of Institutional Control - Coursework Example This paper discusses the three models and explains their effectiveness as forms of institutionalization. Under this model, the prison administration has the authority in its hands. The administrators are uncompromising and apply stringent control measures over inmates’ lives. Under this model, official channel utilizing a chain of command binds communication between administrators and staff (Dilulio, 1987). The control model is an effective tool in sustaining internal order within a prison system (Stojkovic, 2004). The responsibility model allows inmates to have some control and as a result, there is less disorder. Here, prison administrators rely on maintaining order by placing restrictions on institutional control and letting prisoners to self-govern within a security setting. The communication between staff and prison administrators is casual and all staff members communicate on daily basis without following a chain of command (Dilulio, 1987). This model is effective in preventing tension and disorder within the prison (Stojkovic, 2004). The consensual model is a blend of responsibility and control models. This model shadows the responsibility model in that inmates have some control within the prison system and as such, there is less disorder. This model disregards both the control and the responsibility models. The model argues for a less restrictive prison environment and is liberal concerning policies governing prisoners’ welfare. Communication between staff and prison administrators is both informal and formal (Dilulio, 1987). This model is effective in fostering inmates’ participation in decision making process and choice of prison policies such as grooming and property rights (Brydensholt,

Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 8

Ethics - Essay Example Section 2 of the BCS Code of Conduct clearly states on specific responsibility in the business environment: â€Å"You shall have regard to the legitimate rights of third parties† (bcs.org, 2009). It is clearly identified that the term third party consists of potential competitors or any member of the public society who could be adversely affected by certain elements of an information technology system without their full knowledge of these activities. In Joan’s situation, there is clearly an ethical dilemma as none of the aforementioned public officials or corporate officers are aware that information about them is being stored, accessed, and analysed in the INF Ltd. database. Though it has not been offered as to why this information is actually being collected, simply gathering information for future or current use about these officials and public figures creates non-compliance to ethical obligations of the business. This information could be being collected to sell to competing organisations in similar business markets, as one example. Joan has an obligation to recognise that these activities are immoral based on the BCS Code of Conduct and she has legitimate concerns over how this information is being handled and processed. In the event that any of this information might be given to other third parties, there are unlimited opportunities to cause harm to the individuals whose information is being collected. â€Å"You shall avoid any situation that may give rise to a conflict of interest between you and your relevant authority. You shall make full and immediate disclosure to them if any conflict is likely to occur or be seen by a third party as likely to occur† (bcs.org). In Joan’s situation, she has been chosen for the task of collecting this information therefore a conflict of interest has been created not only between herself and her employer, but potentially

Poverty in Canada Essay Example for Free

Poverty in Canada Essay Poverty in Canada has been a long debate on the political and social fronts of the community. According to 2005 reports, an estimated over ten percent of the Canada population are living in poverty. Of much concern is the ever increasing rate of homelessness experienced in the nation over the past two decades (Lee, 2000). However, numerous reports have indicated that the measure of poverty in Canada is negated by the government’s failure to have a definite method of measuring poverty levels. True to the letter, Canadians are current faced with the debate on whether absolute or relative measure of poverty is the best in determining poverty levels in the nation. Nevertheless, numerous measures have been put in place to promote poverty reduction strategies in many provinces of Canada. In addition, non-governmental organizations are increasingly engaging in community based poverty reduction projects. This paper is written as a discussion on poverty in Canada. The author will in particular look at the statistics of poverty in the nation, how poverty is measured in Canada, and the current poverty reduction measures being implemented. Poverty in Canada Poverty in Canada has been an historical issue for many centuries. According to available statistical information, poverty in the nation remains a swing between economic growth and recession as well as numerous evolving initiatives by the government to assist low income members of the community (Raphael, 2002). This information still indicates the emergence of organized assistance to the poor in the twentieth century. True to available literature, most of the poor assistance programs are generally funded by the church. This is evident from the catholic encyclopedia, which funds approximated over eighty seven hospitals in the Canadian nation catering for the poor members of the community (Surhone, 2009). On the other hand, the government has been on the forefront in addressing poverty issues among its citizens. Such can be historically evident from the establishment of the Canada’s welfare state after the great depression as was initiated by Bennett and Mackenzie King. Nevertheless, the problem of poverty in Canada is still a major threat to the sustainable social and economic development of the Canadians. From a 2003 statistical reports, an estimated poverty rate of over 10% has been reported (Raphael, 2002). This percentage has been confirmed by the central intelligence agency as an official value although the absolute rate is undoubtedly expected to be higher. However, the Canadian federal government seems not to agree with this value and have published a current poverty rate to have gone down for the past sixty years to a value less than five percent (Raphael, 2002). This value was determined on the basis of the basic needs poverty measure and deviates very much from what is perceived to be real. Many organizations top on the list being the Fraser institute have not appreciated this value and depict the Canadian federal government as extremely exaggerative. The above contradiction between the government and these conservative organizations has been compounded by the fact that the Canadian federal government has failed to endorse any metric measure of poverty including but not limited to the low income cut off. Altogether, the Canadian federal government seems to have realized the impact of poverty to the society and have employed several measures to reduce it. This is evidenced by the continued decline of poverty in the recent time 1996 when recession which was marked with low income rates. For instance, statistics shows that the less fortunate people such as the physically disabled, mentally ill, and single parent mothers are experiencing higher income rates. Students and recent immigrants have at least higher or average low income rate hence they can afford the basic needs. Measures of poverty in Canada The establishment of an official poverty measuring system in America has been marked with many controversies top on the list being the fact that politicians have failed to agree on a precise definition of poverty (Groot-Maggett, 2002). The have therefore ignored the interest of statistics Canada of defining poverty by it unable and unworthy to determine what is necessary to be a basic necessity. The government and some research institutes use different methods to estimate the extent of poverty of poverty in Canada. However, a debate has emerged on the supremacy of absolute and relative methods of measuring the depth of poverty. The author of this paper discuses both the absolute and the relative measures of poverty. One of the absolute measures of poverty is the basic needs poverty measure. According to libertarian Fraser institute’s economist Chris sarlo, the basic needs poverty measure was conceived to be a poverty threshold (Groot-Maggett, 2002). According to this basic needs approach of poverty, basic needs are those things which are required by people for their physical goods over a long time depending on the current living standards of that particular society. This measure was designed based on different information obtained fro various sources which include but not limited to statistics Canada. An extensive assessment of how much a person can spend in the house was established to give this measure the originality and substance it deserves. This was accomplished by examining the cost of various things which where perceived to meet the above definition of basic need. This included food, clothing, shelter, personal care, transport and communication for different types of societies. Based on the above research and by putting inconsideration the family size, the number of families which had insufficient income to cater for those necessities were determined. Earlier on, the amount of income required to cater for the basic necessities was determined on the basis of gross income which was inclusive of old age pensions and employment insurances. Currently however, the net income has been used the financial ability of a family to sustain its basic requirements (Lee, 2000). A worthy noting point is that this net income is based on reports which can be marked with error such as unreported and underground means of earning income. Based on the basic needs poverty measure, have gone down with an appreciatable rate to a value less than 5% which is estimated to represent less than 2million Canadians. Another absolute measure of poverty is termed the market basket measure. This was designed and established in 2003 by the Canadian government through its department of human resources and skills development (Raphael, 2002). The market basket measure of poverty accommodated a wider range of basic needs than the basic need measure. For instance, it put in consideration the community size and location for at least 48 communities in Canadians and then estimated the sufficient amount of income required to meet those needs. This measure is still understudy and is expected to cover more than 400 communities. The main notable relative property measures is the income distribution measure commonly known as income inequality metrics, gives information regarding the variation of income in a given community. Its effectiveness is evidenced by the fact that when a given group of people increases their income rate then there is a high probability of those earning less to feel an increase in their income. Another often quoted as a relative measure of poverty is the low income cut off which has received many critics from the statistics Canada and they have disregarded it as not a measure of poverty by saying that it does not give reliable and accurate fingers. The low income cut off measure was based on the gross income but the statistics Canada have given reports of both the gross and the net income (Marseken, Timpledon, Surhone, 2009). This measure was designed to give the lowest mark which when exceeded; a family will have to spend much to cater for basic needs such as food shelter and clothing. Recent results based on this measure showed that approximate of 9. 4% lives below the low the current threshold of 63% of the total family income. Poverty reduction measures Like any other country in the world which is conscious of the well being of its people, the Canadian government through the provinces has employed several measures to eliminate poverty and a gain to reduce its impact to the people. Top on the list of these important measures is reduction of tax burdens. This is evidenced by the progressive income tax system in Canada which has resulted to a difference of about 5% between the gross and net low income cut off (Pohl, 2002). Government social programs cannot go unmentioned here because of their importance and effectiveness in succumbing poverty. The Canadian government has come up with a broad range of social programs aimed at helping the law income people. These programs include but not limited to old age security and employment insurance which have seen through the reduction of chances of falling to poverty of people who were rendered unemployed. In addition to this, government funds have been channeled to subsidizing education and public health with an aim of improving the living standards of people with low income (Raphael, 2002). Another government measure which cannot escape this discussion is the introduction of the minimum wage laws. The constitution of Canada includes the minimum wage laws, which even though they vary for different provinces, they have confirmed there effectiveness in standardizing wages by making sure that people with law income are not exploited (Raphael, 2002). The minimum set minimum wage is $8. 00 per hour although it can go a bit down for unskilled workers. Conclusion In conclusion therefore, poverty is not well defined in Canada because of the failure of politicians to agree on the necessities which should be basic. However, the above discussion shows that a considerable number of people in Canada are poor and lacks the basic needs a defined by the basic needs measure of poverty. In addition to this, the government’s effort to eliminate poverty as well as reducing its impacts cannot fail to be appreciated. This is it has invested sufficiently in social programs and in the enforcement of the minimum law wages which have seen through the reduction of poverty and its effect to the people. It also safeguard the less fortunate people and ensured that the poor people are not exploited or robed there right of living a good life. References Groot-Maggetti, G. (2002). A measure if Poverty in Canada. A Guide to the Debate about Poverty. Retrieved August 1, 2010, from http://action. web. ca/home/cpj/attach/A_measure_of_poverty. pdf Lee, K. (2000). Urban Poverty in Canada: Statistical Profile. Retrieved August 2, 2010, from http://www.ccsd. ca/pubs/2000/up/ Marseken, S. , Timpledon, M. , Surhone, L. (2009). Poverty in Canada: Poverty, Minimum Wage, Measuring Poverty, Income Taxes in Canada, Economic History of Canada, Great Depression in Canada, Basic Needs, Economic Inequality. Toronto: Betascript Publishers. Pohl, R. (2002). Poverty in Canada. Retrieved August 1, 2010, from http://www. streetlevelconsulting. ca/homepage/homelessness2InCanada_Part2. htm Raphael, D. (2002). Poverty, Income Inequality, and Health in Canada. Retrieved August 2, 2010, from http://www. povertyandhumanrights. org/docs/incomeHealth. pdf

Active and Passive - Devices Essay Example for Free

Active and Passive Devices Essay Electronic components are classed into either being Passive devices or Active devices. Active devices are different from passive devices. These devices are capable of changing their operational performance, may deliver power to the circuit, and can perform interesting mathematical functions. While a device that does not require a source of energy for its operation. Active Devices An active device is any type of circuit component with the ability to electrically control electron flow (electricity controlling electricity). In order for a circuit to be properly called electronic, it must contain at least one active device. Active devices include, but are not limited to, vacuum tubes, transistors, silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs), and TRIACs. All active devices control the flow of electrons through them. Some active devices allow a voltage to control this current while other active devices allow another current to do the job. Devices utilizing a static voltage as the controlling signal are, not surprisingly, called voltage-controlled devices. Devices working on the principle of one current controlling another current are known as current-controlled devices. For the record, vacuum tubes are voltage-controlled devices while transistors are made as either voltage-controlled or current controlled types. The first type of transistor successfully demonstrated was a current-controlled device. What are Passive Devices? Components incapable of controlling current by means of another electrical signal are called passive devices. Resistors, capacitors, inductors, transformers, and even diodes are all considered passive devices. Passive devices are the resistors, capacitors, and inductors required to build electronic hardware. They always have a gain less than one, thus they can not oscillate or amplify a signal. A combination of passive components can multiply a signal by values less than one, they can shift the phase of a signal, they can reject a signal because it is not made up of the correct frequencies, they can control complex circuits, but they can not multiply by more than one because they lack gain. INTEDGRATED CIRCUITS Analog circuits Most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a continuous range of voltage as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits. The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a circuit can be defined as anything from a single component, to systems containing thousands of components. Analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, operational amplifiers and oscillators. One rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog. These days analog circuitry may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve performance. This type of circuit is usually called mixed signal rather than analog or digital. Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation. An example is the comparator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit. Similarly, an overdriven transistor amplifier can take on the characteristics of a controlled switch having essentially two levels of output. * A Hall effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in response to a magnetic field. Hall effect sensors are used for proximity switching, positioning, speed detection, and current sensing applications. * A current sensor is a device that detects electrical current (AC or DC) in a wire, and generates a signal proportional to it.The generated signal could be analog voltage or current or even digital output.It can be then utilized to display the measured current in an ammeter or can be stored for further analysis in a data acquisition system or can be utilized for control purpose. Digital circuits Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels. Digital circuits are the most common physical representation of Boolean algebra, and are the basis of all digital computers. To most engineers, the terms digital circuit, digital system and logic are interchangeable in the context of digital circuits. Most digital circuits  use a binary system with two voltage levels labeled 0 and 1. Often logic 0 will be a lower voltage and referred to as Low while logic 1 is referred to as High. However, some systems use the reverse definition (0 is High) or are current based. Ternary (with three states) logic has been studied, and some prototype computers made. Computers, electronic clocks, and programmable logic controllers (used to control industrial processes) are constructed of digital circuits. Digital signal processors are another example. http://aanaedwards.hubpages.com/hub/Active-Passive-Devices 2011 | Aana Edwards | Silicon City, CA http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics

Anchorage in Orthodontics- A Review

Anchorage in Orthodontics- A Review Orthodontics is the branch of dentistry concerned with facial growth, the development of the dentition and occlusion, and the diagnosis, interception and treatment of occlusal anomalies. The goal of orthodontic treatment is to improve the persons life by enhancing dental and jaw function and dentofacial aesthetics. This is achieved by obtaining optimal proximal and occlusal contact of teeth (occlusion) within the framework of normal function and physiologic adaptation, acceptable dentofacial aesthetics and self-image and reasonable stability (Graber and Vanarsdal, 1994). Conventional orthodontic treatment is achieved using fixed and removable appliances to achieve a planned end point of treatment. Orthodontic anchorage is an important concept in orthodontic treatment, and can be reinforced by many types of appliances. Orthodontic headgear has traditionally been considered to be the gold standard appliance for reinforcing anchorage. However, an increasing awareness of the drawbacks of headgear, mainly poor patient compliance and serious eye injuries, has led to the development of appliances in which the evidence base supporting their use is incomplete. In addition, it has been suggested that functional appliances which are traditionally used for growth modification, can be used for   anchorage preparation. In this section, the concept of anchorage in orthodontic treatment is reviewed. The definition of anchorage is presented including its relationship to space requirements, extractions and certain appliances, including the potential of using functional appliances for anchorage. As the effectiveness of some of these appliances has been evaluated by randomized trial methodology (RCT), an account of the bias that can arise in RCTs is given and the potential effect this bias may have on the trial results. Finally, the important aspect of measurement of variables in orthodontic research is reviewed focusing on the reliability and validity of new measurement methods using computer software and digital models. 1.2.1 Definition and importance Anchorage in orthodontics can be defined as the resistance to unwanted tooth movement [1]. When an orthodontist/dentist plans treatment they evaluate the anchorage requirement by estimating the amount of space that is needed to correct the malocclusion. Anchorage   or space may be obtained by extracting teeth, moving teeth into certain position and/or the use of orthodontic appliances. Achieving anchorage can be obtained by one of the following methods: 1.2.2 Maximising the potential of available teeth: In this method a force is applied between two points (tooth or groups of teeth) and tooth movement is controlled by making one point more resistant to movement than the other. This is done by careful planning of the site of force application. Examples include: Active movement of one tooth versus several anchor teeth, for example correcting the centreline by moving one tooth at a time. Teeth of greater resistance to movement are utilized as anchorage for the translation of teeth that have less resistance to movement. A common example of this is closing space by pitting the posterior teeth (greater resistance) against the anterior teeth (less resistance). Increasing the number of teeth in the anchor unit, examples are: Adding the second molar to the fixed appliance. Adding the anterior teeth to reinforce posterior anchorage by bending loops mesial to the first molars. Adding teeth from the opposing arch to the anchor unit by utilizing inter-arch elastics. Making movement of anchor teeth more difficult, for example putting a tip- back bend in first molars. Using ankylosed teeth as anchors. 1.2.3 Providing an additional form of orthodontic appliance: The anchorage gained from the previous methods is limited. As a result, it is necessary to reinforce the anchorage with an additional appliance. The most commonly used orthodontic anchorage devices are: Extra oral anchorage (EOA) with headgear Intraoral anchorage with palatal and lingual arches. 1.2.4 Headgear Headgear is an orthodontic appliance that is used to apply forces to the teeth utilising structures outside the oral cavity. Headgear is usually applied to the first maxillary molar via a tube attached to the molar band. The force necessary to provide extra oral anchorage is 200 to 250 gm applied for 10-12 hours per day [2]. Headgear was first used for anchorage by Kingsley in 1866 to retract upper incisors in an upper premolar extraction case [3]. This was followed by Angle in 1888 and Case in 1907 [3]. In 1953, Kloehn developed the contemporary design of headgear that orthodontists   use today [3]. Since then, headgear has been used conventionally when maximum anchorage is required. As a result, it may be considered the gold standard for anchorage in orthodontic anchorage. 1.2.5 Disadvantages of headgear: The use of headgear has the following disadvantages or risks: Compliance: From the early days of headgear use, it was clear that substantial compliance was required and failure to wear headgear, for the prescribed amount   of time, was recognised [3]. Headgear compliance is measured as the discrepancy between actual hours of wear and reported hours of wear and has been evaluated in several studies. Results of these studies have been discouraging as the actual hours of wearing headgear appear to be much lower than that required [4-6]. For example, Brandao et al in 2006 suggested that patients who had been asked to wear their headgear for 14 hours a day, reported wearing their headgear an average of 13.6 hours a day while the actual hours of wear were only 5.6 hours [4]. Cole [6] and Cureton [5] also found that the reported hours of wear were much less than the actual hours of wearing headgear . Soft tissue injuries: Apart from minor injuries to the surrounding intraoral and   extra oral soft tissues, serious ocular injuries have been reported both in Europe and the United States. In some of these instances blindness has resulted as a final result of the injury. Ten eye injuries have been reported in the literature; 2 in the UK, 3 in France, 2 in Italy, 1 in Germany and 2 in the United States [7, 8]. These injuries resulted from one of several factors including dislodgement during sleep, improper removal of headgear or improperly playing with the headgear. Nickel Allergy: A small portion of the population will exhibit sensitivity to the Nickel alloy in facebows [9-11]. Nickel allergies in response to orthodontic appliances are not considered a major health risk. Exacerbation of pre-existing eczema: there has been a case reported in the literature in which an increase in the severity of a pre-existing atopic eczema was observed after headgear wear [12]. It is evident from the problems mentioned that the most significant drawbacks of headgear use are non-compliance and serious eye injuries. Several measures have been taken to overcome these two problems with varying amounts of success. 1.2.6 Improving headgear compliance: Suggestions have been made in the literature to encourage patients to increase the actual number of hours in which headgear is worn; these include the following: The use of a headgear calendar [13], The use of a headgear timer or electronic monitoring device and informing the patient of its presence [14], The use of conscious hypnosis for patient motivation during headgear wear [15], Treatment by a defined behavioural model which depends on a schedule for wearing headgear, in addition to parental observations and rewards based on patient compliance. This behavioural model is flexible and will evolve according   to the patients response and needs [16], Promoting headgear wear by considering gender differences, making patients more aware of their malocclusions and the effect of treatment [17]. 1.2.7 Headgear safety mechanisms: Several features have been added to headgear in an attempt to prevent elastic   recoil injuries or unintentional detachment of the headgear. These include: Lock mechanisms which prevent release of the facebows from the molar tubes [18], Snap-release headgears which prevent elastic recoil of the facebows when an excessive force is used [7], Plastic safety straps which attempt to limit the movement of the facebows [7], Intraoral elastics to attach the inner bow to the molar tube [7], Blunting and smoothening the ends of the facebows to reduce the potential for injury [7]. It has been recommended that at least two of these mechanisms are used simultaneously in addition to clear verbal and written instructions to the patients and parents [19]. In summary, headgear is considered the gold standard appliance for providing anchorage. However, in order for it to work effectively, it requires a significant amount of patient cooperation and compliance. There have been many attempts to improve headgear compliance, which is a reflection of the failure to overcome this problem. Finally, there   are several safety issues related to headgear, which may discourage patients and orthodontists from its use. The ideal solution would be to use an anchorage device that provides at least the same anchorage potential as headgear, but requires little or no compliance. This has led to the development of surgical anchorage devices. 1.2.3 Surgical anchorage In this thesis I will use the term surgical anchorage to denote all types of anchorage devices which are surgically placed in the maxilla or mandible. The use of implants for orthodontic anchorage is a rapidly developing field and appears to be very promising. It has evolved from using conventional restorative implants in the line of the arch to more specialized palatal implants and mini-plates, to mini-screw implants. Types of surgical anchorage include mini-screw implants, mini-plates and midpalatal implants. The mini-screw implant is a modification of screws used for fixation of maxillofacial fractures. Although they have varying lengths and diameters, they are generally smaller than maxillofacial fixation screws, hence the term mini. It is also important to distinguish mini-screw implants from midpalatal implants which can be used for orthodontic anchorage, as the latter are endosseous implants and a modification of prosthetic implants. Mini-plates are small surgical plates that must be surgically screwed to bone under the soft tissue. Mini-screw implants may provide anchorage reinforcement because of the combination of mechanical retention immediately after insertion (primary stability) and a degree of osseointegration. Mini-plates provide a stable structure fixed to bone for application of forces and midpalatal implants offer stability by osseointegration. Despite the widespread adoption of this type of technology, there is a dearth of high quality clinical research into their effectiveness. The literature concerning their use is referenced in section III as part of the systematic review. 1.2.4 Class II functional appliances Functional appliances are orthodontic appliances that utilize the facial and masticatory musculature to produce orthodontic forces. They are commonly used in the treatment of Class II malocclusions. They can either be removable, for example the Clarks Twin Block appliance, or fixed, for example, the Herbst appliance. In the UK, the most popular functional appliance for treating Class II malocclusions is the Twin Block [20]. Functional appliances were developed to treat malocclusions by growth modification,   by encouraging differential growth of the mandible and maxilla. In Class II malocclusions the objective is to encourage growth of the mandible and/or restrain growth of the maxilla. While this theoretical effect of functional appliances is often quoted, the evidence behind these concepts is lacking.   Recently, there have been a number of randomized clinical   trials evaluating the skeletal effect of functional appliances. These are summarised in a Cochrane systematic review published in 2013 which assessed and analysed outcomes of 17 studies [21]. These studies produce interesting results. When early two-phase treatment with a functional appliance was compared to adolescent one phase treatment (patients who did not receive a functional appliance), there was no difference in the final ANB (MD -0.02 °, 95% CI -0.47 to 0.43. P = 0.92). Similarly, when a comparison was made for early treatment between headgear and functional appliances, there was no difference in the final ANB (MD -0.17 °, 95% CI -0.67 to 0.34, P = 0.52). When functional appliance treatment was performed in adolescents and compared to untreated controls, there was a statistically significant difference in ANB (MD -2.37 °, 95% CI -3.01 to -1.74, P It was concluded from the results of these trials that the amount of skeletal change (growth modification), from the use of functional appliances is small and is unlikely to be   clinically significant. Nevertheless, it is clear that these appliances are very effective in the correction of Class II malocclusion primarily through dentoalveolar movements. The following effects of Twin Block treatment are clinically useful: Enhancing facial appearance [22, 23] Distalising upper molars and molar correction [24, 25] Reducing the overjet [24-30] Proclination of lower incisors [24-26, 28, 30, 31] Retroclination of upper incisors [24-26, 28, 30] A case report using Twin Blocks to treat a Class II division II case suggested that a Twin Block can be used instead of headgear derived anchorage [32]. When we consider the preparation of orthodontic anchorage it is common clinical experience that molar correction and the reduction of the overjet are major factors in reducing the anchorage requirements of a case. As a result, some clinicians use functional appliances in anchorage preparation with the aim of avoiding dental extractions or other forms of anchorage. A common method of achieving this is by utilizing a 2-phase treatment protocol during adolescence [33]. The first phase of treatment is achieved by using only a functional appliance. This phase usually continues until the overjet and/or molar relationship is corrected. The clinician may then choose to retain the correction obtained by the functional appliance by keeping the functional appliance in place or by using a simple removable appliance [34]. This is immediately foll owed by a second phase of active fixed orthodontic treatment. 1.2.5 Extraction As mentioned in the previous section, the anchorage requirements of a case are related to the space available in the upper and lower arches. It is common orthodontic practice to change anchorage requirement by the extraction of teeth [2]. The literature examining factors influencing the extraction decision can be divided into three different methodologies according to the method of study. These are: (i) the studies that directly ask clinicians their stated reasons for extraction, (ii) studies that measured the influence of the presence or absence of a cephalometric radiograph on the decision to extract, and (iii) studies that define some patient characteristic, such as cephalometric variables or orthodontic indices, and attempt to identify a correlation between these characteristics and whether or not extractions had been undertaken. I will discuss these studies in the following section: 1.2.5.1 Clinicians stated reasons influencing the extraction decision Only one study, Baumrind et al, directly asked orthodontists the factors that were related   to their decision to extract teeth as part of a course of treatment [35]. In this study full orthodontic records of 72 patients were given to 5 clinical instructors in a University setting in the USA. They were given a treatment planning form to complete for each patient; included in the form were questions about the extraction decision and the reasons for extraction. The clinicians stated that the most important reasons for extraction were crowding (49%), followed by incisor protrusion in 14% and profile improvement in 8%. Other, less frequent, reasons were Concern over Class II severity and concern for post- treatment stability (5%). No other single reason was stated as the most important reason in more than 2% of the forms. When considering all replies, crowding was cited in 72% of forms, incisor protrusion in 35%, profile improvement in 27% and Class II severity in 15%. No other si ngle reason was stated in more than 9% of forms. This was a simple cross-sectional study, in which the patient records and the participants were a convenience sample. It does, however, provide some relevant information on the reasons for extraction. 1.2.5.2 Cephalometric radiographs influencing the extraction decision: There have been several studies that have evaluated the effect of radiographs on the extraction decision. For example, Devereux et al [36] carried out a study in which a group of orthodontists were sent the orthodontic records of 6 patients on a CD, not containing lateral cephalometric radiographs or tracings, and were asked if they would extract teeth (T1). At this point, the orthodontists did not know that they were to be asked to examine the cases again after a washout period. After a period of 8 weeks (T2), the orthodontists were sent the records of the same 6 patients, but the lateral cephalometric radiographs and tracings were included in the records. They were asked again if they would extract teeth. The decisions made by this group (group A) were compared to another group of orthodontists (group B) who had full patient records, including lateral cephalometric radiographs and tracings, at both T1 and T2. It was found that the orthodontists in group A were 1.7 (95% CI, 1.0-2.8) times more likely to change their extraction decision than those in group B (odds ratio). In a similar investigation, Nijkamp et al investigated the influence of lateral cephalometric radiographs on the treatment planning decision [37]. This was a crossover design in which diagnostic records of 48 patients were given to 10 orthodontic postgraduates and 4 orthodontists. They were asked to formulate a treatment plan based around a dichotomous decision regarding three treatment options; (i) extraction, (ii) the use of a functional appliance and (iii) the use of rapid maxillary expansion. The diagnostic records at T1 included dental casts, but did not include a lateral cephalometric radiograph. T2 was 1 month later, and included both dental casts and lateral cephalometric radiographs and values. This design was repeated so that at T3, which was one month after T2, only dental casts were included; and at T4, which was one month after T3, dental casts and lateral cephalometric radiographs were included in the diagnostic records. Agreement between the treatment planning decision with and without the lateral cephalometric radiograph was assessed. In order for the treatment plans to agree, decisions about all three treatment options had to be the same. There was no statistically significant difference in the treatment plans between the use of only dental casts or with additional cephalometric information (P = 0.74). Another study by Han et al evaluated the effect of the incremental addition of diagnostic records on the extraction decision [38]. Five orthodontists provided a treatment plan for 57 patients. Orthodontic records were given to each of the five orthodontists in the following order: Session 1: study models only Session 2: study models and facial photographs Session 3: study models, facial photographs, and panoramic radiographs Session 4: study models, facial photographs, panoramic and lateral cephalometric radiographs. Session 5: all the previous records in addition to a lateral cephalometric tracing. The time interval between each session was 1 month, and the records were re-numbered between sessions. In each session, the orthodontists were asked to select a treatment pathway from a decision tree. The end point of each of the treatment pathway was a decision on whether or not to extract. The treatment planning decisions for each of the orthodontists in session 5 was considered the gold standard for that clinician. As a   result, the proportion of agreement between the treatment plan in each of the four sessions and the treatment plan in session 5 was obtained. The proportions of agreement between sessions 1, 2, 3, 4 and session 5 were 55%, 55%, 65% and 60% respectively. Therefore,] they concluded that study models alone are adequate for treatment planning, and that the addition of other types of diagnostic records made only a small difference. These three studies were good quality cross-sectional studies. The randomisation and method of washout were clear strengths of the studies. In addition sample size calculations were undertaken in two of these studies; Devereux et al and Nijkamp et al. 1.2.5.3 Patient characteristics influencing the extraction decision: The final type of studies evaluating the extraction decision are studies which attempt to identify a correlation between patient characteristics and whether or not extractions had been undertaken. Two studies, Xie et al and Takada et al, used a mathematical model to construct a decision-making Expert System (ES), which could formulate treatment decisions. [39, 40]. ES is a branch of artificial intelligence in which the computer programme simulates the decision-making and working processes of experts and solves clinical problems. They developed a model in which twenty-five patient characteristics were tested on 180 treated patients [39]. The rate of coincidence between the recommendations given by the optimized model and the actual treatments performed was found to be 100%. The characteristics that influenced the extraction decision were the anterior teeth uncovered by incompetent lips and IMPA (L1-MP). Another similar study was carried   out by Takada et   al whenÂà ‚   they selected   25 patient   characteristics   and 188 treated patients in their model [40]. The rate of coincidence between the recommendations given by the model and the actual treatment performed was 90.4%. The characteristics mostly influencing the extraction decision were incisor overjet and upper and lower arch length discrepancies. Heckmann et al investigated the influence of the angulations between the first and second lower molars on panoramic x-rays, on the extraction decision [41]. They used a sample of 30 patients treated by a premolar extraction approach, and a further matched sample of patients treated with a non-extraction approach. Pre- and post-treatment panoramic x-rays were scanned and computer software used to measure the angulations between lower first and second molars. Comparison between the mean angulation of the molars before treatment in the extraction and non-extraction group was not significant. Li et al compared mean cephalometric parameters and model analysis of Class II division 1 patients who were treated with either an extraction or non-extraction approach [42]. The sample consisted of 81 patients; 42 who had 4 premolar extractions and 39 who had non- extraction treatment. The extraction group had statistically significant greater values for the following parameters; arch length discrepancy, curve of spee, upper incisor tip, Frankfort-mandibular plane angle and lower anterior facial height. Bishara et al compared patient characteristics of Class II division 1 patients who were treated with either an extraction or non-extraction approach [43]. The sample consisted of 91 patients; 44 had first premolar extractions and 47 who had non-extraction treatment. A statistically significant difference was found between the extraction and non-extraction groups with regards to the following parameters; upper and lower arch length discrepancy, upper and lower lip protrusion in relation to the aesthetic plane in male patients, and the protrusion of the lower lip in female subjects. These studies were retrospective in nature. There were variations among the studies in the application of inclusion criteria in an attempt to control the characteristics of patients included in the study. Nevertheless, selection bias was inevitably present in these studies. Bias due to periodical changes may also be present due to the retrospective nature of the studies. In summary, studies evaluating the factors influencing the extraction decision are few in number. They have been carried out by gathering the opinion of clinicians in cross sectional studies or by conducting retrospective investigations on a sample of cases in which teeth were extracted as part of orthodontic treatment. The main deficiencies of the studies were due to inadequate selection and number of the study sample; and bias arising from their retrospective nature. References: 1.Roberts-Harry, D. and J. Sandy, Orthodontics. Part 9: Anchorage control and  distal movement. British Dental Journal, 2004. 196(5): p. 255-263.   2. Mitchell, L., An Introduction to Orthodontics. Second Edition ed. 2002, Oxford,  UK: Oxford University Press. 3. Charles T, P., Jr., Cervical headgear usage and thebioprogressive orthodontic  philosophy. Seminars in Orthodontics, 1998. 4(4): p. 219-230. 4. Brandao, M., H.S. Pinho, and D. Urias, Clinical and quantitative assessment of  headgear compliance: a pilot study. American Journal of Orthodontics Dentofacial Orthopedics, 2006. 129(2): p. 239-44. 5. Cureton, S.L., F.J. Regennitter, and J.M. Yancey, Clinical versus quantitative  assessment of headgear compliance. American Journal of Orthodontics   Dentofacial Orthopedics, 1993. 104(3): p. 277-84. 6. Cole, W.A., Accuracy of patient reporting as an indication of headgear  compliance. American Journal of Orthodontics Dentofacial Orthopedics, 2002.  121(4): p. 419-23. 7. Samuels, R.H.A. and N. Brezniak, Orthodontic facebows: safety issues and  current management. Journal of Orthodontics, 2002. 29(2): p. 101-7.   8. Samuels, R.H., A review of orthodontic face-bow injuries and safety equipment.  American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, 1996. 110(3): p.  269-272. 9. Burden, D.J. and D.J. Eedy, Orthodontic headgear related to allergic contact  dermatitis: a case report. British Dental Journal, 1991. 170(12): p. 447-8.   10. Lowey, M.N., Allergic contact dermatitis associated with the use of an Interlandi  headgear in a patient with a history of atopy. British Dental Journal, 1993. 175(2):  p. 67-72. 11. Kerosuo, H.M. and J.E. Dahl, Adverse patient reactions during orthodontic  treatment with fixed appliances. American Journal of Orthodontics Dentofacial  Orthopedics, 2007. 132(6): p. 789-95. 12. McComb, J.L. and C.M. King, Atopic eczema and orthodontic headgear. Dental  Update, 1992. 19(9): p. 396-7. 13. Cureton, S.L., F.J. Regennitter, and J.M. Yancey, The role of the headgear  calendar in headgear compliance. American Journal of Orthodontics   Dentofacial Orthopedics, 1993. 104(4): p. 387-94. 14. Doruk, C., U. Agar, and H. Babacan, The role of the headgear timer in extraoral  co-operation. European Journal of Orthodontics, 2004. 26(3): p. 289-91.   15. Trakyali, G., et al., Conscious hypnosis as a method for patient motivation in  cervical headgear weara pilot study. European Journal of Orthodontics, 2008.  30(2): p. 147-52. 16. Gross, A.M., G. Samson, and M. Dierkes, Patient cooperation in treatment with  removable appliances: A model of patient noncompliance with treatment implications. American Journal of Orthodontics, 1985. 87(5): p. 392-397.   17. Clemmer, E.J. and E.W. Hayes, Patient cooperation in wearing orthodontic  headgear. American Journal of Orthodontics, 1979. 75(5): p. 517-24.   18. Samuels, R., et al., A clinical evaluation of a locking orthodontic facebow.  American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, 2000. 117(3): p.  344-350. 19. ADVICE ON THE USE OF HEADGEAR, D.A.S.C. The British Orthodontic  Society (BOS), Editor. 20. Chadwick, S.M., P. Banks, and J.L. Wright, The use of myofunctional appliances  in the UK: a survey of British orthodontists. Dental Update, 1998. 25(7): p. 302-8.   21. Thiruvenkatachari, B., et al., Orthodontic treatment for prominent upper front  teeth (Class II malocclusion) in children. Cochrane Database of Systematic  Reviews 2013, Issue 11. Art. No.: CD003452. DOI:  10.1002/14651858.CD003452.pub3., 2013. 22. OBrien, K., et al., Early treatment for Class II malocclusion and perceived  improvements in facial profile. American Journal of Orthodontics Dentofacial  Orthopedics, 2009. 135(5): p. 580-5. 23. Singh, G.D. and W.J. Clark, Soft tissue changes in patients with Class II Division 1  malocclusions treated using Twin Block appliances: finite-element scaling  analysis. European Journal of Orthodontics, 2003. 25(3): p. 225-30. 24. OBrien, K., et al., Effectiveness of early orthodontic treatment with the Twin-block  appliance: a multicenter, randomized, controlled trial. Part 1: Dental and skeletal  effects. American Journal of Orthodontics Dentofacial Orthopedics, 2003.  124(3): p. 234-43; quiz 339. 25. Keeling, S.D., et al., Anteroposterior skeletal and dental changes after early Class  II treatment with bionators and headgear. American Journal of Orthodontics   Dentofacial Orthopedics, 1998. 113(1): p. 40-50. 26. Illing, H.M., D.O. Morris, and R.T. Lee, A prospective evaluation of Bass,  Bionator and Twin Block appliances. Part IThe hard tissues. European Journal of  Orthodontics, 1998. 20(5): p. 501-16. 27. Thiruvenkatachari, B., et al., Comparison of Twin-block and Dynamax appliances  for the treatment of Class II malocclusion in adolescents: a randomized controlled  trial. American Journal of Orthodontics Dentofacial Orthopedics, 2010. 138(2):  p. 144.e1-9; discussion 144-5. 28. OBrien, K., et al., Effectiveness of treatment for Class II malocclusion with the  Herbst or twin-block appliances: a randomized, controlled trial. American Journal  of Orthodontics Dentofacial Orthopedics, 2003. 124(2): p. 128-37. 29. OBrien, K., et al., Early treatment for Class II Division 1 malocclusion with the  Twin-block appliance: a multi-center, randomized, controlled trial. American  Journal of Orthodontics Dentofacial Orthopedics, 2009. 135(5): p. 573-9.   30. Tulloch, J.F.C., W.R. Proffit, and C. Phillips, Outcomes in a 2-phase randomized  clinical

Patriarchal Pathology: The Case of Sam Shepard’s Buried Child and Mahes

Sam Shepard and Mahesh Dattani belong to different countries and time span. They come from different social, ethnic and cultural backgrounds. Sam Shepard belongs to the cream of the crop of 20th century American dramatists. He was involved with New York's Off-Off Broadway Theater - the new experimental theaters that sprung up in church halls, lofts, basements and cafes after the Off-Broadway theater had become expensive. He was closely allied with Theater Genesis-an Off-Off Broadway venue based at St.Mark’s in the Bowery, an Episcopalian church in the East Village at 2nd Avenue and 10th Street. Mahesh Dattani is a well known cotemporary Indian-English playwright, the first Indian playwright writing in English to be awarded the Sahitya Akademi Award. Sam Shepard explores the complicated relationships within American families. In order to ensure the myth of the American Dream, however unattainable, family life is seen by playwrights like Sam Shepard to pay the price. The family is breaking up from within by their adherence to public values. Although his plays explore deeply the American psyche and investigate the cultural heritage of their nation, yet they have a mainstream plea to people all over the world. Mahesh Dattani writes on the burning issues that beset the post-independence Indian society, whether it is communal discord, politics and crime, growing homosexuality or the gender bias. He uses stage to condemn many of the drawbacks prevailing in society. His plays depict marginalized groups of society, people who are considered misfits in a society where stereotyped attitudes and notions reign supreme. His plays have varied content and varied appeal. The works of Sam Shepard and Mahesh Dattani thus r... ...Print. Shepard, Sam.Buried Child.Vintage Publications,1979.Print. Secondary Source Deeba,Farha.Prioritizing the invisible:A Study of the Select plays of Mahesh Dattani.Diss.University of Kashmir,2013. Mathisen,Kari.What’s Happened to this Family Anyway? The Disintegration of the American Family in Selected Plays by O’Neill,Miller,and Shepard.MA thesis. University of Troms,2009. Ranjan,Mukesh. â€Å"Mahesh Dattani’s Where There’s a Will: Exorcising the Patriarchal Code†.The Dramatic World of Mahesh Dattani-A Critical Exploration.Ed.Amar Nath Suri.Sarup Book Publishers,2009.136-144.Print. Shepard, Sam. Buried Child.In Sam Shepard:Plays,Vol.2.London:Faber and Faber,1997.Print. The Cambridge Companion to Sam Shepard. Ed.Mathew Roundane.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2002.Print.

Physics of Toilets :: physics toilet toilets

Throughout the ages we have seen timeless inventions to numerous to name. We have seen everythingfrom the inventio of the radio to the engine to the atomic bomb. But there is one invention that goes onunappreciated, even looked down upon. The toilet. The toilet is an amazingly simple invention which,without it, the world would be a very different place. Without toilets there would be waste in our housesas well as in the streets that would have to be manually taken care of. Without the flush toilet there is nopossible way that the world could survive as populated as it is. It is an invention that has become, in ourtime, a necessity. The Birth of the Flush Toilet The first successful attempt at a true water flush toilet as see them today came as early as 1862. Known as a "washout", it consisted of a bowl with a hole in the bottom on the front or back. Below this was a p-trap filled with water in order to prevent gas escape. Such wonderful devices became very popular over to the outhouses and earth closets (portable outhouses). They were much liked, though known to often flush incompletely. An improvewment was made on the "washout" when the bowl was combined as one with the p-trap. This was known as a "washdown". Though it was an improvement, neither the washout nor the washdown were known for aconsistent complete flush. Nearing the end of the centruy, sanitaryware manufacturers discovered that by diverting some of the water from tank pipe into the bowl acting almost like a jet flush. It was also learned that if the shape of the p-trap exit were changed it would act almost as a siphon sucking everything from the bowl. Thus the modern flush toilet was born. Though people often credit Thomas Crapper for the invention of the flush toilet, he was in actuality only the owner of one of the first largest toilet manufacturers. It was in fact a collection of ideas of many people from Leonardo DaVinci to John Harrington to Alexander Cumming and on through history. The Basic Concept Behind the Flushing Toilet Flushing a toilet is the perfect example of basic physics. A toilet is little more than a storage tank of potential energy. The tank on the back of every toilet, as most people know, is filled with water. When the flushing lever is pressed all of the stored water in the tank is suddenly released through a hole in the bottom of the tank.

America Needs a Complete Smoking Ban Essay -- Should smoking be banned

Approximately 7,500 infants die due to sudden infant death syndrome due to exposure of secondhand smoke in America (â€Å"American Lung Association†). Children all over the United States are unwillingly exposed to parental secondhand smoke in public, in cars, and at home. When children are exposed to secondhand smoke, many develop life threatening diseases later in life as a result of that exposure. In the United States, smoking should be banned while in the presence of children. Children’s lungs are vulnerable to the effects of secondhand smoke, and this can cause serious problems down the road. Some states have already banned smoking in public and others are in the process. Secondhand smoke exposure has the possibility of causing nicotine dependence in adolescent (nicotine dependence in Children). Secondhand smoke can cause diseases in the lungs of children which can be long-term. There are three examples of diseases in children that include asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and pneumonia. Asthma, being the most common, is a chronic disorder which causes the host to cough, wheeze, have a shortness of breath, and chest pains (â€Å"WebMd† Asthma.) Living with asthma is very common; many people can live perfectly normal lives with the disease. Another illness caused by secondhand smoking is COPD. Symptoms include COPD flare ups, shortness of breath, buildup of mucus, weight loss, and in some cases the host’s skin will turn a shade of blue. There are four stages to COPD which are mild, moderate, serious, and very serious in which the symptoms progressively become worse as you go from stage to stage ("WebMd COPD.") A third disease is pneumonia which violently attacks the respiratory system. Symptoms include rapid ... ...ndhand Smoke." American Lung Association. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Mar. 2015. . "Symptoms and types." WebMd. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Mar. 2015. . "COPD Symptoms and types." WebMd. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Mar. 2015. . "Pneumonia Symptoms and types." WebMd. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Mar. 2015. . Bell, Kirsten, Salmon Amy, and Darlene McNaughton. "Smoking around children and childhood overnutrition." 19.2 (2009): 15. Web. 2 Mar. 2015. "second-hand smoke may trigger nicotine dependence symptoms in kids." NewsRx Health & Science 19 Oct. 2008: 195. Health Reference Center Academic. Web. 28 Mar. 2015.

British Prime Minister

From the year 1905 to the year 2008, there are already 24 prime ministers who have ruled over as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (United Kingdom Prime Ministers 2008). As of the present times, the position is occupied by Gordon Brown. The power that is being held by the prime minister has been passed on from one hand over the next for the past 103 years. The source of power is an important factor in analyzing the role of the prime minister and the way through which a deeper understanding of how it is maintained can be seen.The distinctiveness and the constant replacement of the prime minister over the course of their existence in the British government have to be related to the dynamics of power together with its source in order to explain why and how it is held by the people in position. This paper aims to draw a concept of power and identify whether there is an informal and formal side of power. This is done through a research using different literatures and also draws upo n personal opinion in order to provide a critical position on the general topic of power.This is followed by a discussion of the power that is exercised by the prime minister, more specifically that of the United Kingdom. The sources of power, according to the conventions, arrangements, and constitutional devices are also researched in order to relate this to how the power is earned and maintained. In order to do this, the experiences of the past prime ministers are studied and collected to form a historical overview of how the power to govern as a prime minister is taken and maintained. What is Power?In understanding the concept of power, it is important to take note of its definition and the characteristics that are associated with it. Morgan (2006) defines it to be â€Å"the medium through which conflicts of interest are ultimately resolved [and] influences who gets what, when, and how† (p. 166). In relation to this, it is seen that power occurs with the picture of social reality drawn by the members of a particular group and the need for the allocation of the scarce resources (Pfeffer & Salancik 2003).There is a relation that can be seen from the two definitions wherein it could be derived that the person or the group which has the power defines the resources that are considered to be of limited amount. Along with the possession of power is the ability and influence for particular resources together with its allocation. In addition to this, the seat of power is defined by the individuals making up a group. Politically speaking, power is seen to be a means through which sharing occurs in the process of making decisions (Fahlbusch, Bromily, & Barrett 1999).In the context of the government, the decision-making process meanaaas the formulation of the policies, which include government action or inaction. Further disparity is seen with the use of power as there are two faces seen for it. It is seen as an instrument through which peace and status quo can be achieved (Fahlbusch, Bromily, & Barrett 1999). On the other hand, it remains to be very susceptible to abuse that includes â€Å"misuse, excess, and tyranny† (Fahlbusch, Bromily, & Barrett 1999: 311)Two additional and related definitions of power is provided by Shortell and Kaluzny (1997) where it is seen that power is: 1) something that is used in order to change the course of action or behavior of another group or individual and 2) the influence that is exerted in order to force another person or group to do something that is in opposite to the original decision. There are certain elements that can be clearly seen from these definitions of power. First, it is seen that it may or it may not transcend through a hierarchical structure and is not dependent on the way through which positions in the organization is patterned.This is because the direction from which the power stems can be anywhere who can actually accomplish the two conditions mentioned above. However, it can b e seen that there is, actually, a greater chance for those who occupy higher positions to have power and use it because of the capabilities and responsibilities that is attached to the position. Second, it is a means of initiating change. To a certain extent, it can be seen that change is often associated with leadership as the latter is associated with two characteristics which include being â€Å"masters of change† and â€Å"visionaries† (Fisher 1999: 138).It can be related that since there is a sense of change in every leader, it can be seen that power is something that is used for the purpose of leading people into making several changes for a particular goal that is intended. It should be noted, still, that leadership is not the same as management and may or may not lie within the formal organizational structure. Third, power is sometimes associated with coercion and the use of force in order to achieve something.Though this is oftentimes seen and accepted in nega tive terms, it should be considered that this is not the sole aspect of power. In fact, there are different types of power that is classified according to their sources and coercion is only one of the elements that can be seen from one or a few of these types. A discussion with regard to this is placed in the following section. Sources of Power There are five general sources of power as presented by Cronkhite (2008). The classification includes reward power, coercive power, legitimate power, referent power, and expert power (Cronkhite 2008).First, reward power exists where loyalty and cooperation is earned in exchange for something that is needed (Cronkhite 2008). Second, coercive power involves the ability to take away something that is considered to be of value when the behavior or action desired is not achieved (R. Denhardt, J. Denhardt, & Aristigueta 2001). Third, legitimate power, placed in simple terms, is considered to be the type of power which stems from the position that i s being held wherein people are made to follow and act in consideration of the organizational structure, which indicates the position (Bob, I.Asherman, S. Asherman, & Randall 2001). Fourth, referent power is the type wherein power is gained through association with a powerful group or persons (Timby & Smith 2007). It could be of the inherent power of the organization to which a particular person belongs that makes other people behave in a particular manner Lastly, expert power is that which is derived from the â€Å"special knowledge, skill, or ability† that a particular individual possesses (Cottam, Uhler, Mastors, & Preston 2004).The Role of the Prime Minister There are several roles that need to be fulfilled by the British Prime Minister being the national leader. The breadth of responsibilities include â€Å"constitutional and procedural, appointments to ministerial and other senior posts, conduct of Cabinet and parliamentary business, the organization and efficiency of government, the Budget and other economic decisions, and special foreign and defense functions† (Mayne 1999: 26).As can be discerned from the list of general roles taken by the Prime Minister, there are functions which are legislative and executive in nature. The Prime Minister’s presence and control is felt when it comes to policy formulation, which is in the decision-making process, and in policy implementation, which is the executive functions of the prime minister. For example, he or she has affairs to deal with in the decisions made but also has defense functions, which is under the executive branch of the government.Another set of classification is also provided by Borthwick, Shell, and Williams (1995) wherein the Prime Minister is vested with responsibilities as the primary individual responsible for the operations of the government, the head of the party to which he or she belongs, and the leader of the whole nation. There are different specific tasks that need to be accomplished in consideration of the different interests of the people to whom the prime minister is accountable to.It is also defined by Hayward and Menon (2003) that a seemingly prime ministerial government exists in Britain wherein the â€Å"prime minister co-ordinates policy, resolves conflicts, and controls the main resources† (67). In the definition previously provided in an attempt to clarify the concept of power, it has been shown that the elements of power include possession of control in resources, an influence in the decision making process, and a voice in the resolution of conflict.These are the three elements that could also be discerned from the functions and roles of the prime minister that are presented by Hayward and Menon (2003) and Mayne (1999). It can be concluded that the set of functions given here characterize the existence of power within the hands of the Prime Minister and the sources can be both formal and informal, as is followed in the defini tion of power in general. Where it all Comes From There are different sources of power that can be seen from the history of prime ministerial incumbency in Britain.Through the intricate network of relations formed from the organizational hierarchy of the government, it can be seen that there are three general sources of power that includes the conventions, the constitutional devices, and the arrangements that are present in the British government. From personal characteristics also comes a consideration of whether or not a particular individual is given the power to serve as the Prime Minister.There are four characteristics, which include: 1) the name and status in the society or an organization together with what an individual can do; 2) perceived affiliation with success in terms of politics; 3) acceptance of the public; and 4) a relatively high position in the â€Å"party, parliamentary party, and government† (Poguntke & Webb 2005: 37). While these can not be considered as the direct sources of power, it serves as among the characteristics that are seen as bases whether power is given to an individual or not.This is important because these are requirements or prerequisites that are seen to be the main characteristics of the people that are vested with the powers of the Prime Minister. Likewise, it can be seen that these bases for the acquisition of power is not framed in the Constitution nor is it determined through the formal lines of government but are the shadow elements being considered in the selection process. However, it should also be noted that not everyone who fits these conditions become Prime Ministers.This is because there are other forms of standards are present that limits only one individual to be considered rightful as the Prime Minister. To a certain extent, it can be said that the Prime Minister is considered to be an â€Å"elected monarch† and draws certain powers from the Royal Crown of the land (Borthwick, Shell, & Willia ms 1995). The approval and acceptance of the monarch has been an important factor in maintaining the power that is within the reach of the Prime Minister.Over the years, the manner through which the monarch is selected has evolved in such a way that in the beginning, it is the personal affiliation of the person to the monarch that mattered but in the twentieth century, it became the credentials and appropriateness of the person that is considered by the monarch (Borthwick, Shell, & Williams 1995). While today’s monarch do not hold as much power and influence as those that existed in the past, they are still given the chance to voice out their concerns over the affairs of the government especially with the selection of the key leaders of the country.It has been through traditional considerations and the influence that the monarch has that renders them to still be powerful for certain decisions made in the country. In addition to this, the Prime Minister is tasked to report to the monarch every week in consideration of the monarch’s possession of â€Å"the right to be consulted, the right to encourage and the right to warn† (Williams 1998: 165). There are still powers and rights that are given to the monarch that the Prime Minister could not ignore and should continuously take into account for the former could easily use its power against the Prime Minister.In addition to this, it is argued by Harrison and Boyd (2006) â€Å"that the major development strengthening PM power over the last century have been mainly political rather than constitutional (34-5). Politically speaking, the power of the Prime Minister is related to the party that wins in the House of Common, which is considered to be a source of power for the Prime Minister (Borthwick, Shell, & Williams 1995). The largest party wins in the House of Common and the person who serves as the leader of the said party is appointed as the Prime Minister with the approval of respective autho rities in the land.Just the same as the Prime Minister reports to the monarch, he or she is likewise responsible to the House in lieu of the need to maintain the power that is vested upon him or her. There are several expectations that need to be fulfilled as a Prime Minister that would continuously be within the shoulders of the incumbent. Moreover, another source of power for the Prime Minister is the assignment of being the First Lord of the Treasury where the two positions are often associated with one another (Goodnow 2005). The responsibilities of the said office give the Prime Minister another area from where his or her power could stem from.Conclusion Power is considered to be the influence in the decision-making process, the control over the resources, and the force exerted over the behavior and actions of other people. In general, there are five sources of power that is categorized according to how power is attained and maintained. Placed in the context of the British gove rnment, power is considered in the roles of the Prime Minister. There are general roles that are fulfilled by the individual who is incumbent to the said position, which is being the head of the state, government, and the parliament.The powers of the Prime Minister are also earned through the monarch and the positions assigned of him or her. There are different limitations to the extent of control exhibited by the monarchy today but it remains to be ingrained in the British society and it can still place several pressures on the Prime Minister and the power of the same. In addition to this, there are also personal characteristics that are held as important for the position. Indeed, the powers of the Prime Minister stem from different sources, which are both formal and informal.The broad range from which power is sourced out is considered to be an implication of the need for a clear delineation of the powers and functions of the British Prime Minister. List of References Bob, P. , As herman, I. , Aherman, S. , and Randall, J. (2001) The Negotiation Sourcebook. Amherst, MA: HRD Press. Borthwick, R. L. , Shell, D. , and Williams, R. (1995) Churchill to Major: The British Prime Ministership Since 1945. NY: M. E. Sharpe, Inc. Cottam, M. , Uhler, B. , Mastors, E. and Preston, T. 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